Long lines formed outside polling stations for the first election since the October 7, 2023 Hamas-led attacks as voters grappled with the trauma of Israel's deadliest day and its ensuing wars in the Gaza Strip, Lebanon and Iran.
The Central Elections Committee reported that voter turnout stood at 74.3 per cent, the highest rate for this late stage in voting since 1988.
Witnesses reported long queues outside polling stations in Tel Aviv and the predominantly Arab city of Tayibe.
According to media reports, 70,000 Israelis travelled home from abroad to vote as most citizens are not permitted to cast their ballots overseas.
Policies of Netanyahu's coalition have been divisive at home and have deepened Israel's international isolation while he has defended his record, calling himself the only leader with the mettle to face down Israel's foes.
Netanyahu, Israel's longest-serving leader with 19 years in office, is an unmatched political survivor and his nationalist politics are increasingly entrenched.
Israel's fragmented system makes it difficult for an array of opponents to force out his coalition of conservative, religious and ultranationalist parties.
His main rival Gadi Eisenkot, a military ex-chief of staff, aims to unseat him with the support of parties on the right and centre as well as the rump of an increasingly marginalised left.
Opinion polls show a close race, with neither leader facing an easy path to power.
Forecasters were hesitant to guess what effect the strong turnout might have on the result.
A surge in votes from Israelis of Palestinian heritage could limit gains for Netanyahu's coalition while increasing the odds that any government formed to oust him would require Arab parties' support, a contentious prospect among Jewish party leaders.
Netanyahu told supporters they needed to come out to vote to balance high turnout among his progressive opponents and Israelis of Arab heritage.
"You all need to stream to the polls," he said.
"This is a fateful moment."
If neither Netanyahu nor Eisenkot can form a governing coalition in the 120-seat parliament, Netanyahu could stay on as caretaker until another election is held.
His opponents have managed to wrest him from the premiership only once since 2009, and that took four inconclusive elections in two years.
He was back 18 months later.
For many of Netanyahu's opponents, the election turns on accountability for the security failures of October 7.
Opposition groups have promised to hold an inquiry, which Netanyahu's government has resisted.
"I am convinced that by the end of today, we will see a change - a new spirit for the state of Israel - that will serve as a rectification for the past three years and for that terrible day," Eisenkot said during a visit to kibbutz Nir Oz in southern Israel, targeted in the October 7 attacks.
He walked to the polls with Gadi Mozes, one of 251 people kidnapped by Hamas and taken to the Gaza Strip during the attack that killed 1200 people.
Eisenkot says Israel's response - a war which health authorities say killed more than 74,000 Palestinians - was a failure because Hamas remains in charge.
He repeated his commitment to dismantle or destroy Hamas' military and governing power in the Gaza Strip within 18 months of forming a government.
Itamar Ben-Gvir, leader of an ultranationalist party in the governing coalition, cast his vote in the Kiryat Arba settlement in the occupied West Bank.
He predicted Netanyahu would return as prime minister.
Ahmed Tibi, a candidate from an Arab party, said record turnout from Israel's Arab minority would "pave the way for an alternative government and change the grave reality".
Eisenkot has ruled out partnering with Arab parties although some possible scenarios envision him relying on them to prop up a minority government.
About 12,000 polling stations are open across the country, most until 10pm (7am on Wednesday AEDT) when projections based on exit polls are expected.
with DPA
